Pedagogical patterns in science and mathematics classrooms of Pakistan: An observation-based study
Document Type
Article
Department
Institute for Educational Development, Karachi
Abstract
The persistent learning crisis in science and mathematics across countries of the Global South raises critical questions about the quality of classroom instruction. While participatory pedagogy is widely advocated for promoting cognitive engagement, inclusion, and student agency, large-scale empirical evidence on how practices are enacted, and the conditions that enable them, remains limited in contexts such as Pakistan. This study develops a national profile of participatory practices in elementary (Grades 5, 6, and 8) science and mathematics classrooms in Pakistan and examines the predictors of these practices. Grounded in the dynamic model of school effectiveness and constructivist theory, participatory pedagogy is conceptualised as teaching that promotes collaboration, student voice, shared decision‑making, and meaningful cognitive engagement. Using a large‑scale cross‑sectional design, the study reports findings from structured observations of 436 classrooms in 96 public and private schools across 16 districts. Classrooms were assessed using an adapted Classroom Observation Scale‑Revised (COS‑R), measuring the physical environment, classroom interactions, and teaching practices. Results indicate that instruction remains largely teacher‑centred, with limited student participation and weak cognitive engagement, although teacher–student interactions were generally positive. Peer interaction and formative feedback were minimal. Multivariate analyses show that class size and the effective use of allocated instructional time are key determinants of participatory practices. The study contributes large‑scale empirical evidence from the Global South, introduces a contextually grounded observation tool, and offers scalable insights for strengthening participatory pedagogy in pursuit of equitable learning outcomes aligned with SDG4.
Publication (Name of Journal)
International Journal of Educational Research
DOI
10.1016/j.ijer.2026.103134
Recommended Citation
Bhutta, S. M., Ali, S., Ansari, A. N., & Ahmad, S. (2027). Pedagogical patterns in science and mathematics classrooms of Pakistan: an observation-based study. International Journal of Educational Research, 141, 103134.
Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.